بخش لاتین: مقالات مجلات

۹۲ ( Mowlana Bibliography

Journal articles ( 91

Journal Articles

92/1

Mowlana, Hamid. “On Human Communication”, Javnost-The Public: Journal of the European Institute for Communication and Culture, Vol. 25:1-2, 2018.

92/2

Mowlana, Hamid and Wang, Chenjun, “An Intergeneration Conversation on International Communication”, The Journal of International Communication, Vol. 24, No. 2, August 2018.

Mowlana, Hamid. “On the Common Sense of Communication and the communication of common sense”, China Media Research, 11 (3) 2016.

A philosophical discussion on human communication and a key note paper delivered at the 21st scientific conference and general assembly of the international association for media and communication research (IAMCR), as professor mowlana's presidential address, University of Strathclyde, glascow, Scotland, July 26, 1998.

Mowlana, Hamid. “The role of media in contemporary international relations: culture and politics at the crossroads”, Journal of Multicultural Discourses, April 2015.

The purpose of this article is to reflect on the role of media in contemporary international relations and the ecological aspects of international communication in the technological age through the life and work of Edgar Snow, an American pioneering writer on China–US relations and an exemplary internationalist. The article postulates that the battlefield of international politics has shifted from geographical and physical levels to cultural and communication levels with modern media playing a crucial role in perceptions and image-making. Consequently, we are increasingly removed from experience and becoming overly dependent on the representations of reality that come to us through media. We have often lost our place within an actual community and our touch with a particular natural landscape that had always grounded us. The article therefore posits that a new paradigm and an ethical way of communicating across cultures for mutual dialogue, respect, and dignity are required if we desire to move toward a more equitable and just global community. We must learn to seek out and intentionally create expectations of morality and conduct especially at the international level. As Snow understood long before it became clear to most anyone else, the Western concept of reductionist science and its linear and short-term communication approach to our environment also need to be augmented by the holistic and organic notion of communication and science emanating from the East.

Mowlana, Hamid. “Global Communication a Cultural Ecology”, China Media Research, 10 (3), 2014.

Communication as a cornerstone of cultural environment has been central to social and political thought in both Eastern and Western traditions. Implicit and explicit in these commentaries has been the notion of ecological balance in relation to social, economic, and political activities. This article highlights the concept of ecology as a new analytical framework for the study of culture and communication and outlines a theoretical model of global communication as cultural ecology. The article reviews Eastern and Western perspectives on ecology and identifies six interrelated ecological terrains: (1) the ecology of goods and commodities; (2) the ecology of services; (3) the ecology of warfare; (4) the ecology of information; (5) the ecology of habitat; and (6) the ecology of ethics and morality. It is the argument of the present article that our cultural, economic, and political environments cannot be understood completely unless we turn our attention to this unitary phenomenon in terms of culture and communication, and that the future of our culture is intrinsically linked with our attitude toward the communication environment.

Mowlana, Hamid. “Theoretical Perspectives on Islam and Communication”, China Media Research, Vol. 3, No. 4, 2007

This article problematizes Western biases and practices in the current system and structure of mass communication as they relate to the Islamic world. It calls for the need of a professional association of Muslim journalists that aims to set ethical criteria for news reporting, protect the rights of individual local journalists, and promote education and training of young people who represent a major source of human resources for Islamic culture and civilization. The article then discusses five cardinal concepts of the Islamic worldview that could serve as the fundamental principles of communication ethics for such a network of Muslim journalists: (1) tawhid, (2) amr bi al-ma'ruf wa nahy'an al munkar, (3) ummah, (4) taqwa, and (5) amanat. By and large, Muslim societies have not responded positively to communication ethics coming from outside their own culture. Nor in the post-colonial Muslim world has the communication system acquired from the West gained a broad popular base. Throughout the Islamic history, information has been not a commodity but a moral imperative. From an Islamic perspective, therefore, this article concludes that linguistic and political vocabularies and concepts, now at the center of global politics, both celebrate the arrival of a new communication age and hold the key to ultimate information control

Mowlana, Hamid. “The Revival of Islamic Thought: An Interview”, Masjed Daneshgah (A scientific, cultural and communication publication of the Iranian universities), no. 12, Spring 2004, pp. 64-74

Mowlana, Hamid. “International Communication: The Journey of a Caravan”, The Journal of International Communication,10:2, 2004, pp. 7-32

Caravans move between spaces, carrying people, ideas and goods. Exchanges take place, civilisations meet, in and through the medium of caravans. In his contribution to this issue, Hamid Mowlana likens international communication to the 'journey of a caravan'. JIC is a caravanserai especially created for the international communication caravan but where other caravans, those of other fields related to international communication, are also welcome. The JIC caravanserai has bustled with caravans exchanging ideas. It has provided a space for academic dialogue across the years and continents. Hamid Mowlana opens the issue with an article that looks at the history of international communication. A second-generation scholar in international communications, he is a member of the first generation to institutionalise the field, through development of sections within international organisations and departments within universities. In 'International communication: The journey of a caravan' Mowlana traces the development of the field as only he, as a witness to the history of international communication and as a participant in its development, might do.

Mowlana, Hamid. “Communications Media in the Islamic World”, Pezhoohesh van Sangesh (Scientific Research Quarterly), vol. 10 no. 35, Autumn 2003, pp. 175-182

Mowlana, Hamid. “Beyond the Nation State”, English Kayhan, vol. 19, no. 200, May/June 2003, pp. 45-58

Mowlana, Hamid. “Communication, Philosophy, and Religion”, The Journal of International Communication, vol. 9, no.l, 2003, pp. 11-34

The field of international communication stands at a crossroads. This crossroads, intersecting the past, present and future of the field, points in different directions, depending on how one maps our present juncture. As a discipline, the field of international communication solidifies itself, establishing its identity and destination in advance, charting and determining its course along the well-trod paths of dominant paradigms. Beyond the discipline, the field of international communication demands of our work, thought and writing as an attempt to conceptualise problems and ask questions which have yet to be articulated, revealing the limits and horizons of that which is and can be thought. To conceptualise problems and ask questions which have yet to be articulated is to bring to the field of international communication the hope and impossibility of a future-yet-to-come, a concern for and engagement with a future which, by definition, is forever yet to be realised.

Mowlana, Hamid. “Dialogue of Civilization: A Theory”, Gofteman, no. 6, Winter 2003, pp. 197-206.

Mowlana, Hamid. “Mass Media and their Impact on Muslim Identity”, English Kayhan, vol. 18, no. 190, August 2002, pp. 28-37

Mowlana, Hamid. “Communication, Tradition, and Modernity”, English Kayhan, vol. 18, no. 189, July 2002, pp. 48-52

Mowlana, Hamid. “The Global Media and the World of Islam”, English Kayhan, vol. 18, no. 189, July 2002, pp. 36-81

Mowlana, Hamid. “The One-way Flow of Information”, Civilization: A Monthly Review, Industrial University of Isfahan, May-June 2002, no. 2, pp. 54-69

Mowlana, Hamid. “The Media and Commercial Advertisement”, Pezhoohesh va Sanjech (Research and Measuremeny), vol. 9, no. 29, Spring 2002, pp. 17-34

Mowlana, Hamid. “The Cultural Issues of Globalization”, Andisheh Sadegh, Imam Sadiq University Publications, Tehran, Winter 2002, no. 5, pp. 14-17

Mowlana, Hamid. “From Medieval to Modern Times: Information in the Arab World”, Cooperation South, UNDP Publications No. 1, September 2001, pp. 139-151

The current “information revolution” has profound implications for Arab countries, opening up public dialogue, political discourse, social debate and even religious interpretation to wider circles. How can the new communication technologies also be used to encourage development that is sustainable and equitable, maintain the value of indigenous communication and cultural traditions, and strengthen national identity, while also fostering inter-Arab cooperation in an era of globalization?

Mowlana, Hamid. “Political Marketing and Manipulating Public Opinion”, Egyptian Journal of Public Opinion, Volume 2, No. 1, 2001, pp.1-28.

When the new Indonesian President, Abdurrahman Wahid, was elected to the office in October 1999, he was described by the Western media as something of an enigma, a collector of jokes and Beethoven recordings, and a lover of both Western classical music and rock-in-roll. For example, The Washington Post referred to him as a man whose “favorite all-time hit is reported to be Janis Joplin's 'Me and Bobby McGee.'” Indonesia is the world's largest Muslim country with a population of nearly 200 million and Wahid leads the 30-million-member Nahdlatul Ulama, a rurally based traditional Muslim group. He is known as a “canny” political operator who managed to be a critic of Suharto, a pro-Western general who ruled for 32 years before massive protests forced him to step down in May of 1998. At the same token, two years ago in 1997, when Mr. Mohammed Khatami was elected to the presidency in the landslide victory in the Islamic Republic of Iran, the Western media referred to him as a “reform-minded clergy” who is very well acquainted with the work of Alex de' Toqueville, knows all about U.S. democracy, and reads Western classics. These are examples of how the West often attempts to qualify world leaders as acceptable politicians, by judging them using Western cultural standards.

Mowlana, Hamid. “Globalization of Culture and Its Consequences”, Research and Measurement: A Quarterly Journal, Fall 2001, pp. 10-18

Mowlana, Hamid. “ICTs and Development in the Arab World”, Communicator (New Delhi, India), Vol XXXVI No. 3 , July-September, 2001.

Mowlana, Hamid. “Remembering Herbert I. Schiller”, Television & News Media, Vol. 2, Issue 1, February 2001

What happens when a great figure becomes silent, one whom we know living, whom we read and reread, whom we have heard, and from whom we were still awaiting a response, a response that had everything in reserve? Herb Schiller completely changed the landscape of media studies in the United States and did so in a dignified way. Those who opposed and disliked his analysis and commentaries earlier finally came to admire and respect him. Knowledge exists in two forms: lifeless, stored in books; and alive in the consciousness of men and women. The second form of existence is, after all, the essential one; the first is indispensable, although it may occupy an inferior position. Herb Schiller decades ago showed convincingly that he was, and still is, the master of both of these.

Mowlana, Hamid. “International Association for Media and Communication Research: A Historical Perspective”, Quarterly Radio Television, Winter 2000, No. 2, pp. 119-134

Mowlana, Hamid & George Gerbner, “Remembering Herb Schiller”, IAMCR Newsletter, Vol. 9, No. 2, April-May 2000.

Mowlana, Hamid. “Necessite d’Elaboration d’un Modele de Liberation et d’Unite”, Le Message d’lslam, Juillet & Aout., 1999, No 176

Mowlana, Hamid. “Doctunents Non Reveles sur L’Irak”, Le Message d’Islam, Mars & Avril 1999, No. 172-173.

Mowlana, Hamid. “IAMCR: A Historical Perspective”, IAMCR Newsletter, vol. 9, no. 2 March 1999, pp. 6-22

A highlight of the Oaxaca Conference (1997) was IAMCR's XL Anniversary Ceremony. The main pan of the ceremony consisted of speeches by James Halloran, Hamid Mowlana, Kaarle Nordenstreng, Gertrude Robinson and Herbert Schiller in which these IAMCR stalwarts recounted their histories of IAMCR. Gertrude Robinson's speech appeared in the Nov. 1997 Newsletter; James Halloran's in that of March 1998. Hamid Mowlana's speech is reproduced below.

Mowlana, Hamid. “IAMCR: A Historical Perspective”, IAMCR Newsletter, Vol. 8, No. 2, March 1999

Mowlana, Hamid. “Unesco: High Point in Relations with IAMCR”, IAMCR Newsletter, Vol. 9, No. 1, November 1999

Mowlana, Hamid. “Russia, Modernism, and Financial Crisis”, Echo of Islam, no. 172, November 1998, pp.42-45

Mowlana, Hamid. “Les Realities et les Compliments en Diplomatic”, Le Message de l’Islam, no. 168-169, November and December 1998, pp. 10-14

Mowlana, Hamid. “Civilizations: Clash or Dialogue?” Educational Kayhan, vol. 14, no.2, March 1998, pp. 3-10

Mowlana, Hamid. “Globalization of Mass Media: Opportunities and Challenges for the South”, in Cooperation South (special edition on globalization) United Nations Development Programme, no.2, Fall 1998, pp.22-39

Does the globalization of media and communication help developing countries “leapfrog” into the information age, improve access to technology, speed development, and contribute to global understanding, equality and harmony? Or does it discredit indigenous cultures, knowledge and experience, sometimes proven over centuries, undermine national economic and political independence, and generate worse international disparities? With the approaching twenty-first century, new technologies and the “information revolution” are bringing our world closer together and making nations, economies and cultures increasingly interdependent.

Mowlana, Hamid. “On Critical Theory And Critical Analysis”, President’s Column, IAMCR Newsletter, Vol.8, Number 2, March 1998.

The image of the post-World War II era which influenced the direction and activities of IAMCR far more than three decades of its history are not dead, far they still have their adherents. The debates between “administrative” and “critical” paradigms continue. However, neither of these paradigms have the power to energize our membership's imagination in any collective sense. Today, we have no comforting images of greatness and progress that speak to us all. The unshakeable gad-like belief in ideologies that determine all historical events down to the smallest detail is no longer a living intellectual faith, and the alternative belief — that individuals alone could direct history toward the ultimate goal of a good society — is equally shattered. As critical theorists, we need to recognize that, by definition, there is not one critical framework, but many farms of critique, spanning different epistemological schools of thought. Critical theory is self-reflexive and dialogical, demanding that intellectual communities maintain a critical posture toward their awn assumptions and discursive structures

Mowlana, Hamid. “Report of IAMCR in the 21st Century Committee”, IAMCR Newsletter, Col. 8, No. 1, November 1998

Mowlana, Hamid. “IAMCR Is Now Forty Years Old”, President’s Column, IAMCR Newsletter, Vol. 7, Number 2, March 1997

Mowlana, Hamid,. “IAMCR Conference in Oaxaca, Mexico”, President’s Column, IAMCR Newsletter, Vol. 8, No.1, November 1997

while the notions of cultural pluralism or multiculturalism are recent, the phenomenon they express is not. By painful experience we have learned that the development of communication technologies, no matter how important they may be, does not suffice to solve the problem of our social life.

Mowlana, Hamid. “Book Review: The Press in the Arab Middle East, Ami Ayalon”, in Middle East Studies Association Bulletin, no. 30, 1996, pp. 95-96

Mowlana, Hamid. “Communication and Development”, in Peace Review, vol. 8, no 1, 1996, pp. 105-111

Three major challenges now confront the communication and development field. First, after a short period of pause and reflection in the 1970s, the so-called modernization paradigm has been reinvented and expanded-this time under rubrics such as globalization, free markets, and the Information Revolution. In its older and renewed forms, this has been the dominant development and communication paradigm. Second, grassroots movements and indigenous communication modes have been revitalized, and traditional channels of media have been integrated into modern information technologies. This helps invigorate notions of sustainable development, and provides a challenge for the dominant and hegemonic approaches to communication and development. Grassroots and indigenous approaches clash 'with the modernization paradigm. From this intersection of approaches, a major debate about where we are and where we are going, may well materialize, but in a brand new context. Third, for the last two decades, we have been told that development is a Third World problem. But now we know that it's a problem not merely for the Third World but for everyone, industrialized and non-industrialized alike. In short, it is a global problem. To deal with this new understanding, vie face enormous methodological questions about what tools or procedures' we must use to confront the economic, political and social problems of the coming decades. So, cumulatively, the third challenge and possible transformation in the field must be a methodological one.

Mowlana, Hamid. “IAMCR And Unesco”, President’s Column, IAMCR Newsletter, Vol. 6 , Number 2, April 1996

Mowlana, Hamid. “New Information Technologies, Globalization and Multi-Cultural Societies”, President's Column, IAMCR Newsletter, Vol. 7, Number 1, November 1996

Mowlana, Hamid. “The Communications Paradox”, The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, Vol. 51, No. 2, July/August 1995, pp. 40-46

The world is being engulfed in a tide of American culture-inspired secularism. And yet, just when the virus seemingly has become ascendant, a ray of hope emerges. Disenchanted and disenfranchised people everywhere are discovering that they have alternatives. In some cases, people are revolting against global uniformity and establishing their own niches within the new information infrastructure. The costs of communication technology are (finally) falling enough to allow peripheral groups to gain an ever-so-small ability for individual empowerment. From these tiny acorns perhaps can grow a mighty oak-a world in which all people have the means to participate in a dialogue across the globe, rather than just getting the viewpoint of the globe's strongest beamed directly to them.

Mowlana, Hamid. “Restructuring and Reform of IAMCR”, President’s Column, IAMCR Newsletter, Vol. 6, Number 3, November 1995

Mowlana, Hamid. “IAMCR In A Changing World”, President’s Column, IAMCR Newsletter, Vol. 5, Number 1, February 1995

Mowlana, Hamid. “Shapes of the Future: International Communication in the Twenty-first Century”, The Journal of international Communication, Vol. 1, No. 1, June 1994, pp. 14-32

With the end of the twentieth century and the turn of a new millennium, the global arena and the field of international communication are undergoing significant changes. Looking back on the field, both the international order and many international communication topics stemmed from the post-World War II order and the Cold War.

With the collapse of the Soviet Union the shadow of the Cold War has lifted to reveal shifting political. economic, and cultural alliances and conflicts spanning from Eastern Europe, to the Middle East, to the Pacific Basin. The increasing importance of these currents, especially in the cultural sphere, demands a reconsideration of the nature of the international communication field within the rubric of international relations. This article will specifically address these changes and their implications for study within the field through the discussion of ten major points, eight of which are current phenomena in international and global systems and two of which are underlying methodological and epistemological elements of the field.

Mowlana, Hamid. “Muslims and Genocide in the Balkans”, Peace Review, Vol. 6, No. 3, Fall 1994, pp. 373-381

The international community has yet to make a fundamental choice between believing or not believing that the war in Bosnia‐Herzegovina affects world peace and the future of regional security. Genocide is being carried out on television and before the news media every day, yet the world leaders who have access to money, organizations, power, and military might still do not know exactly what to do. On the one hand, U.S. and European leaders say we cannot allow “ethnic cleansing” to continue. On the other, they say they should not become “partisans” in the war. They cannot have it both ways. For the governments of Islamic countries, whose collective response has been no more effective than the Western one in stopping the mass murder of Muslims, the Bosnian tragedy raises moral and political questions that undermine the legitimacy of their power at home.

Mowlana, Hamid. “My Agenda For IAMCR”, President’s Column, IAMCR Newsletter, Vol. 4, Number 3, November 1994

Mowlana, Hamid. “Toward a NWICO for the Twenty-first Century?” Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 47, No. 1, Summer 1993, pp. 59-72

The rampant quest today for a so-called new world order is not new to contemporary international relations. In particular, the technologies and institutions of communication that have become so central to world politics and economics over the last couple of decades have fundamentally altered the nature and sources of power and influence, both domestically and internationally. Clearly, a new global order of information and communication has emerged – but whose order is it?

Evaluates whether Third World countries are able to benefit from technological advances and whether cultural imperialism still exists in the 1990s. Call for a New International Economic Order (NIECO) and a New World Information and Communication Order (NWICO) during the 1970s; NWICO legacy; Technology and development; Constraints of the existing order.

Mowlana, Hamid. “lslam at the Forefront of International Politics”, Inquiry, , Vol. 2, No. 7, March-April 1993, pp. 42-43

Mowlana, Hamid. “The New Global Order and Cultural Ecology”, Media, Culture & Society, Vol. 15, No. 1, January 1993, pp. 9-27

The last decades of the twentieth century have shaken the foundations of our thinking. However, it was neither the 'end of ideology', a convergence between capitalism and socialism as sociologist Daniel Bell (1960) had predicted, nor 'the end of history', an unabashed victory of economic and political liberalism that the American conservative political analyst Francis Fukuyama (1989) had outlined. Simply, history cracked open; a quest for new ideologies began. American politics, Islamic culture, Japanese technology – to cite a few – ventured into new and experimental regions. The years produced vivid 'theatres' of operations: Vietnam, Iran, Lebanon, Afghanistan, Nicaragua, Panama, Chile, China, South Africa, Kuwait, Iraq and, of course, Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union, not to mention the developments from Kashmir to Algeria and from Northern Ireland to South Africa. A spirit of change seemed to pervade the political, economic and cultural climates of the world. It is precisely in this environment that cultural forces have come into play globally. As international relations expand into a multitude of diverse interests and structures, ranging from the military to the political, and from the economic to the cultural spheres, the question of communication ecology occupies a prominent role.

Mowlana, Hamid. “Communication and Development: Everyone's Problem”, Interaction, Vol. 11, No. 1, 1993, pp. 3-25

Communication and development is now everyone's problem. The approaches of the past, focusing either on individual psychological characteristics or structural conditions fail to encompass the changes that have occurred as a result of the expansion of communication processes and products in post-industrial societies. The economic and political crisis in the north-Iow growth, high unemployment, inadequate social services and education, national disarticulation, political apathy and breakdown of representative organizations-no longer provides a “model” for the “underdeveloped” countries to follow or present the corresponding psychological characteristics of modernity. In many ways, communication now is development. The revolutions of postindustrial society are revolutions in information and communication processes and services affecting political, social and economic structures. Communication and development studies become fused in a common search not for the impact of one on the other-communication does not cause development-but the concomitant evolution of the two toward new social, political and economic organizations.

Mowlana, Hamid. “Information Hunger and Knowledge Affluence: How to Bridge the Gap?” Development: Journal of the Society for International Development, Vol. 3, Fall 1993, pp. 23 -26

Who is winning and who is losing in the emerging new world order of information and communications? Who are the information hungry and who the knowledge affluent? The large majority of residents of this “global village” are deprived of the basic tools of modem communication, information and knowledge. They live in undignified conditions of illiteracy, disease, hunger, unemployment and malnutrition. The technologies and institutions of communication are central to contemporary world politics and economics and increasingly the source of power, both domestically and internationally. We are in the midst of a new order, but whose order are we talking about, and how large is the gap between the haves and the have-nots?

Mowlana, Hamid. “Muslimimaailma ja kansanmurha Balkaneilla” (Muslim World and Genocide in the Balkans) Ulkopolitiikka (Foreign Policy), Finnish Institute of International Affairs, Helsinki, Finland, Numbers 3 and 4, 1993, pp. 33-39

Mowlana, Hamid. “Triumph of the Image”, Peace Review, Vol. 5, No. 1, 1993, pp. 27-34

The Gulf War represents the triumph of image over reality and reason. New communication technologies made possible the transportation of images and words in real time to hundreds of millions of people worldwide. Mesmerized by the imagery, we thought we witnessed the war. Yet, as studies from many countries suggest, it was not the war we witnessed but imagery orchestrated to convey a sense of triumph, thus achieving results that reality and reason could never have accomplished.

Mowlana, Hamid. “Tourism in a Global Context: The Case of Frequent Traveler Programs”, (with Ginger Smith), Journal of Travel Research, Winter 1993, pp. 20-27

International tourism integrates itself into the complex world of contemporary global affairs through its dependence on telecommunications technologies and its tolerance for widely fluctuating political. economic. and social conditions. A little-explored area which illustrates the relationship of telecommunications and tourism in terms of factors of globalization is the frequent traveler. and especially the frequent flyer program concept.

The world's infrastructure has been transformed radically over the last 30 years, largely as a result of political, geophysical, and technological developments. As a result, modem international relations are characterized by a number of new participants, institutions, and issues beyond that of the conventional nation-state system. A subject area which illustrates well the integration and complexity of contemporary affairs is international tourism and its 1980s creation of the frequent traveler program concept. Although the nation state continues to play primary role in international relations, participants such as transnational firms are contributing both directly and indirectly to the emergence of new institutions in the form of nongovernmental organizations and their activities. This generation of new issues is rendering the fields of international relations and international communication much more complex and their theories more diverse than ever before.

Mowlana, Hamid. “Soif d’information et abondance de connaissances: Comment combler le fosse?”, Developpement, (Paris, France), 1993

Mowlana, Hamid. “Communication Policy and Planning: An Integrative Approach”, Telematics and Informatics, Vol. 9, No. 2, Spring 1992, pp. 113-122

Communication has always been a crucial and pervasive part of any developmental program. Today, an emerging area of development study is, in fact, the application of planning and management of information and communication to development efforts. Indeed, the area of communication policy and planning has been one of the growing fields within the international communication and development discipline. This article will examine both the literature and institutional growth within the communication policy and planning field, especially as it may apply to less-industrialized societies. Whereas most of the writings in communication technology in national development is to change the audience's attitudes and behaviors, this paper takes an integrated view of communication policy in recommending a set of socioeconomic and political-cultural elements that are multidimensional and compatible with the diversity of national cultures.

Mowlana, Hamid. “International Flow of Japanese Programs: The 'OSHIN' Phenomenon”, (with Medhi Mohsenian Rad), Keio Communication Review (Tokyo, Japan), No. 14, 1992, pp. 51-68

The flow of television programs internationally and across national boundaries has been the subject of a number of studies over the last two decades. This study was supported by a grant from the Hoso-Bunka Foundation, Inc. (Tokyo, Japan), and a faculty summer grant from the International Communication Program, School of International Service, The American University, Washington, D.C. (U.S.A.).

Mowlana, Hamid. “Ecological Dimensions of International Relations: A Comparative Study of Civil Society, Information Society, and Islamic Society”, The Iranian Journal of International Affairs, Vol. 4, Numbers 3&4, Fall- Winter 1992, pp. 568-585

The present article compares the civil society, information society, and the Islamic society. The notion of civil society is a conceptual framework in which the development of modern societies in Europ and other industrial countries has been described. the concept of information society has been a central focus of social development analysis in the mid-20th century. this theory attempts to bring about a general flourishing state of human intellectual creativity. The Islamic society hinges on the concept of society as conceptualized by Islam. The concept of society in Islam is based on divine low, which finds the foundation of word order in the principle and theory of Tow hid (Unity and oneness of God). Thus, the concept of society, according to this notion, is neither sectarian, nor racial and tribal, but universal. Life according to Islam is an organic whole and all components-political, economic, religious, and cultural-ara parts of the whole. Society is governed by aw, that is the Divine low, but this law preceded the society and controls it, and not the other way around.

Mowlana, Hamid. “The Emerging World Order: For Whom And For What”, Media Development, Volume XXXIX, February 1992

Mowlana, Hamid. “Ecological Dimensions of International Relations”, The Journal of Humanities, Volume 3, No. 3 & 4, Fall & Winter 1991 & 1992

Mowlana, Hamid. “Communication and the State in the Middle East”, Media Development, Vol. XXXVIII, No. 3, 1991, pp. 8- 10

Mowlana, Hamid. “Report The Gulf War”, Media Development, (Special Issue), October 1991

Mowlana, Hamid. “Communication And The State In The Middle East”, Media Development, Volume XXXV111, March 1991

Mowlana, Hamid. and Mehdi Mohsenian Rad, “Japanese Programs on Iranian Television”, HBF Report, ( HOSO-Bunka Foundation, Tokyo, Japan), No. 2, July 1991

Mowlana, Hamid. “Old Wine and New Bottles: UNESCO’s New Strategy on Communication”, Media Development (London), October, 1990

Mowlana, Hamid. “Geopolitics of Communication and the Strategic Aspects of the Persian Gulf”, The Iranian Journal of International Affairs, Vol. II, No. 1, 1990, pp. 85-106

A crucial, but unexplored, area in the study of the Persian Gulf is the geopolitical and strategic aspects of communication and information flow in the region. Modern telecommunications, especially space age technology, has changed traditional notions and strategies of international conflict and cooperation. 1 It is now possible that these technologies, if desired, could form the core of an alternative security system. Historically, extensive transportation, navigation, and communication services have been the indispensable nerve system of the strategic aspects of the Persian Gulf. In recent times, with the development of modern communication/information worldwide, the region has acquired an even more vital role. In the past, the volume of commodity productions, such as oil and other minerals, was the index of the area's trade and military communication flow. Today the trend is toward information systems as they become more central to the socioeconomic, military, and political infrastructures of the Persian Gulf states. This development is particularly accelerated by the growing desires of external powers to exert influence and intervene in the region's geopolitics in order to protect their worldwide interests.

Mowlana, Hamid. “NWICO and the Democratization of Communication: One Step Forward, Two Steps Back”, Media Development, Vol. XXXV11, No. 3, 1990, pp. 25-26

A number of communication specialists were asked for a brief response to the programme 'Communication in the Service of Humanity' from Unesco's Third Medium-Term Plan (1990-95).In part the aim was to renew the vision of a New World Information and Communication Order, which in recent years has faded into the background of international politics. But WACC has also been asked 'to advance the process of working out a set of common principles of international communication which should guide the NWICO debate in the 1990s' (The Manila Declaration, para. 20). Publishing the following responses is only the first of many steps which WACC hopes to take during the next few years in the struggle for a new communication order.

Mowlana, Hamid. “Tourism, Telecommunications and Transnational Banking: A Framework for Policy Analysis”, (with Ginger Smith), Tourism Management, Vol. II, No. 4., 1990, pp. 315-324

The massive growth of international tourism has been paralleled by the increasing globalization of communications and financial services, which in their turn have contributed to the expansion of the tourism industry. This article examines the links between the two and argues that the global tourism infrastructure now forms an important component of international relations. The article attempts to provide a framework for the policy analysis of international tourism and suggests where future research and action are needed. This article is based on a more comprehensive ongoing research project on telecommunications, transnational finance and international relations at the International Communication Program, School of International Service.

Mowlana, Hamid. “Old wine in new bottles: NWICO and the democratisation of communication: One step forwards, two steps back”, Media Development, Vol. XXXVII, March, 1990

Mowlana, Hamid. “Communication and Cultural Settings”, The Bulletin of the Institute of Communication Research, Keio University. Tokyo, Japan, No. 33, 1989, pp. 1-21

In this chapter, Hamid Mowlana elucidates four cardinal concepts of the Islamic worldview that may serve as the fundamental principles of ethical communication in Muslim societies: (1) tawhid (unity, coherence, and harmony of all in the universe), (2) amr bi al-ma’ruf wa nahy’an al munkar (commanding to the right and prohibiting from the wrong), (3) ummah (community), and (4) taqwa (piety). It is his thesis that, in contrast to the ethical foundation of the modern West with its emphasis on the secular, ethics in the Islamic world are predicated on the inseparability of the religious and the social. Throughout Islamic history, he asseverates, information has been not a…

Mowlana, Hamid. “The Islamization of Iranian Television.” Intermedia, Journal of the International Institute of Communications, London, England, Vol. 17, No. 5, 1989, pp. 35-39

In the West, particularly in the United States, television has been said to have a ritualistic function-comparable to religion. If 'television is religion' in the United States or Europe, in Iran since the Islamic Revolution it is religion that provides television. Islamization of the mass media in Iran, in both content and operation, has been happening for the past decade, since the Islamic Revolution in 1978-79; its full impact on society and politics is only recently starting to be recognized. Nowhere is this more visible than in the institutionalization of the broadcast system, particularly television, within the framework of the Islamic Republic of Iran.

Mowlana, Hamid. “A Call for National Policy Research on Information and Communication”, Telematics and Informatics, Vol. 5:4, 1988

The demand for a sound national fiscal policy, the conflict over the abortion question, the disputations regarding social and welfare questions, and the many items such as the tax and trade issues are familiar as some of the main planks of national debates over the last decades, especially during the presidential elections. A similar demand for a national information and communication order is less known among the national leaders and the general public, mainly due to the erroneous perception that it is less important. In fact, the United States as a major industrial and information power is the only country in the West where information and communication issues have not been singled out and selected as a national priority, and no public and private funds have been allocated for nationwide research on the process and effects of modern communication technologies and their impact on individual and public policies. Although there have been attempts on the part of academia and industry to isolate and forecast specific issues of an information and communication nature, the result has been fragmentary at best with industry doing its own investigation based on profitability and expansion of market. The result is that people generally tend to perceive the accouterments of the economic debate-rade figures, gross national products, energy prices, and so forth-as concrete aspects directly affecting their lives. Information is seen as a comparatively or nonmaterial good, rather low in national priorities. Yet from the Cold War to the U.S.- Soviet detente, from the Vietnam War to the AIDS controversy, from the Watergate to the Iran-Contra affair, and almost every presidential election in modern times, information and the way it is communicated has been a central issue. This vital research area for a variety of reasons has never been treated as a national agenda nor has there been any congressional appropriation for thorough investigation into the subject. The point is not only simple but indeed urgent. Information is a national resource and must be studied on a nationwide scale.

Mowlana, Hamid. “A Call for National Research on Information and Communication”, American Inquiry (American University), August 1988

Mowlana, Hamid. “Implications of the Information Explosion”, USA Today, Volume 117, No. 2520, September 1988.

Media consultants, communication experts, informational specialists, and political advisors have been hired not to seek information from the public, but to use all the available techniques, methodologies, strategies, and resources to manipulate and control it. From the Cold War to U.S.-Soviet detente, from the Vietnam War to the AIDS controversy, from Watergate to the Iran-Contra affair, and in almost every presidential election in modern times, information and the way it is communicated has been a central issue. Yet, for a variety of reasons, this vital topic never has been the subject of an agenda in any national forum. The point is not only simple, but urgent. Information is a national resource and must be debated nationally.

Mowlana, Hamid. “Review of Matti Moosa, Extremist Shiites: The Ghulat Sects”, Perspective, Vol. 17, No. 2, Spring 1988

Mowlana, Hamid. “La Circulacion International de la lnformacion”, Analisi (Universitat Autonoma de Barcelona), Vol. 10:11, December, 1987

Mowlana, Hamid. “The Mass Media and Culture: Toward an Integrated Theory”, Religious Education, Vol. 82, No. 2 , Spring 1987

Mowlana, Hamid. “World's Best-Informed Public?”, SAIS Review (School of Advanced International Studies, The Johns Hopkins University), Vol. 6, No. 1, Winter-Spring 1986

The shift of international relation from cold war “bipolarity ” to current “multipolarity” has made the conduct of international politics quit complex in the 1980s. The rise of the third world as a viable political force, the pervasive existence of critical economic dependencies and intense economic competition between industrial capitalist countries have generated a plethora of “informed publics” newly aware of the influence of foreign affairs in areas previously considered to be the exclusive domain of domestic politics. Environmentalists, for example, see domestic ecological questions in an international context, peace movement groups look at national defense budgets critically, and local labor and trade associations concern themselves with U.S. international economic policies because of the challenge from Japan.

Mowlana, Hamid. “Review of Christopher, Warren et al., American Hostages in Iran: The Conduct of a Crisis”, Perspective, Vol. 15, No.2, March & April 1986

Mowlana, Hamid. “Economics, Culture, and Communication”, Cultures, (UNESCO), Vol. 36, 1985

Mowlana, Hamid. “The Myths and Realities of the `Information Age': A Conceptual Framework for Theory and Policy”, Telematics and Informatics, Vol. 1, No. 4, 1984

Development in communication technologies during the last two decades has far exceeded the ability of both policy makers and the academic community to effectively deal with such innovations. If the “communications revolution” is undeniable, their nature, causes and consequences are much less certain.

If the “communications revolution” and the explosion of information” are undeniable, their nature, causes, and consequences are much less certain. tow opposing viewpoints have been prevalent during the last two decades. the first sees development of modern communication technology and the international flow of information as ordinary and evolutionary processes, similar to those processes through which western society has frequently passed in the last four centuries.

Mowlana, Hamid. “Needed: A New World Information Order”, USA Today (Publication of Society for the Advancement of Education), Volume 112, No. 2460, September 1983.

The demand for a New International Economic Order is familiar as the main plank of the disputatious North South dialogue between the developed and the developing nations. A similar demand for a New World Information Order is less known among the general public, mainly due to the erroneous perception that it is less important. People generally tend to perceive the accouterments of the economic debate-trade figures, gross national products, energy prices, et al.-as concrete aspects directly affecting their lives. Information is seen as a comparatively or non-material good, rather low in developmental priorities.

Mowlana, Hamid. “Review of Kapur, Ashok, The Indian Ocean”, Perspective, Vol. 12, No.6, September 1983

Mowlana, Hamid. “Review of Michael Burgoon”, Communication Yearbook 5, Perspective, Vol. 12, No. 1, January/ February 1983

Mowlana, Hamid. “Review of Tim Niblock, ed., State Society and Economy in Saudi Arabia”, Perspective, Vol. 11, No. 3, April 1982

Mowlana, Hamid. “Technology versus Tradition: Communication in the Iranian Revolution”, Journal of Communication, 29:3, Summer 1979

The Iranian revolution of 1978-79 grew naturally from native soil. The impetus for revolution has been traced to many factors, such as the political and economic conditions (1, 4, 6), foreign interests (3, 5), and the challenge to traditional social structure (7, 9). Cumulatively, these factors contributed to what could be best described as a conflict between the official culture of the government and ruling elites, which represented and promoted Western influence, and the traditional culture of the masses rooted in Iranian national and religious traditions. This implicit clash between the rulers and the ruled became most visible with the rise of the oil economy. The tremendous income from the sale of oil products had made Iran a rich-but not affluent-society. The Iranian elite used its wealth to impart Western technology for rapid “modernization” because, as one study concluded, they “viewed the importance of Western technology as inherently good because it can be naturalized into the developmental scheme in a way that ideological and political institutions can not” (۲). For the masses, however, whose livelihood was still dependent upon agriculture, such technology and oil wealth had an indirect effect. Lacking resources and arable land, peasants left the countryside for the cities at a rate of half a million a year, looking toward the promises of industrialization. The consequence for a great majority of the population was social dislocation and a new urban culture dominated by Western goals and ideals.

Mowlana, Hamid. “O Zintegrowana Teorie Srodkow Komunikowania Masowego I Kultury”, (Toward an Integrated Theory of Mass Media and Culture), Zeszyty Parasoznawcze, Krakow, Poland, XX, 1979

Mowlana, Hamid & Timothy J. Logue, “Fair Trials vs. a Free Press: A New Phase in an Old Conflict”, USA Today, Vol. 197, No.2404, 1979.

Fall the dynamic tensions created between constitutionally recognized or established entities by the U.S. Constitution, perhaps none has received more attention since the end of Watergate than the confrontations between the judiciary and the news media over the principles of fair trial vs. free press. The much celebrated jailing in August, 1978, of New York Times reporter Myron A. Farber in the Dr. X murder case in New Jersey is but the latest (although in many ways unique) in a series of conflicts over the last eight years which has left the American media defensive and anxious.

Mowlana, Hamid. “Iran‘s Perceptions of Western Europe: A Study in National and Foreign Policy Articulation”, (with Peter M. Clark), International Interactions, 4:2, 1978

Acts of public communication cannot be isolated from other features of a political process. In fact, a study of public policy articulation can provide a valuable framework of national perceptions, demands and expectations through which a nation's evolving position in the international system may be analyzed. Iran offers a valuable opportunity in this regard because its policy articulation occurs through a limited number of communication channels-one of which is the newspaper Keyhan. Keyhan has been chosen because of its clear capacity to reflect accurately the perceptions of Iran's political elite in regard to general national development and foreign policy objectives. This paper will concentrate on two reference periods-one pre-1973 and one post-to analyze in terms of selected variables, Iran's evolving elite perceptions of its traditional relationship to Western Europe. Editorials and policy statements have been keyed to selected variables representing various channels of Iran's perceptions and then analyzed to chart shifting policy priorities among Iranian elites. The results indicate a radically altered self-perception of both national development objectives and Iran's self-perceived role in global power relationships

Mowlana, Hamid. “Mass Media and the 1976 Presidential Campaign”, Intellect, 105:2381, February 1977

An analysis of the media's coverage of the 1976 presidential election reveals a fundamental, if not radical, alteration in the relation of the American media to the American polity. The communication media no longer simply report political events-they are integrally bound in the very nature of the political process. In the 1976 election, the media and the political process were, for the first time, essentially one and the same. A number of factors have contributed to their integration.

Mowlana, Hamid. “Middle East Mass Communication: Selected Information Sources”, Journal of Broadcasting, 21 :4, Fall 1977

A brief discussion of bibliographical sources for research on the Middle East is followed by a bibliography of information and research from 1950-1971. The Middle East is defined as that group of countries bounded on the north by Turkey, on the east by Iran, on the south by the Persian Gulf, and on the west by Egypt. (JEG)

Mowlana, Hamid, “The Press and National Development in the Middle East”, Intellect (Publication of Society for the Advancement of Education), Volume 104, No 2373, March, 1976

Mowlana, Hamid. “A Paradigm for Source Analysis in Events Data Research”, International Interactions, 2:1, Summer 1975

Although many studies have compared sources used to collect events data, no attempt has been made to analyze the effects of the mass media systems that produce the data. This issue of the validity of individual sources could be approached systematically by (1) analyzing the structure and functions of a mass media system; and (2) identifying the nature of the system. In recognition of this problem, a paradigm for the systematic analysis of sources of events data is proposed. It embraces eight broad areas pertinent to both stages of the communication process: the formation and distribution of messages or events through the media in any given mass media system.

An attempt will be mad to explore the way in which the social structure of source (mass media system or single newspaper) affects the nature of events or data. the minor theme of this paper is the implicit biases of social scientific research on events data in international relations in terms of what is studied and what is ignored, how it is investigated, under what circumstances data are collected. Identification of such biases may lead to a more rigorous and relevant study of international behavior indicators with a wider intellectual perspective. In recognition of these problems, a paradigm for the systematic analysis of sources of events data-communication systems-is proposed.

Mowlana, Hamid. “Who Covers America‘?” Journal of Communication, 25:3, Summer 1975

The foreign correspondent corps stationed in the U.S. is large, sophisticated, unorthodox, and unevenly distributed, with more than half representing Western European media.

Reviewing the literature dealing with the foreign correspondent, one notices an intriguing imbalance. Most studies are directed toward journalists of a single country-the United States-who have been assigned abroad. Hohenberg's historical account of the times and lives of well-known U.S. foreign correspondents (5), Kruglak's (6) and Maxwell's (10, 11, 12) studies on the American correspondents in Western Europe and elsewhere, Bogart's profile study of the U.S. newsmen abroad (2), and Wilhelm's survey of the American correspondents working around the world (20) are examples.

Mowlana, Hamid. “National News With A Foreign Accent”, The AU Report (American University, Washington D. C.), November/December 1975

Mowlana, Hamid. “Typewriter-Ambassadors: Explaining America to the World”, Intellect, Vol. 104, No.2368, September-October 1975

Mowlana, Hamid. “The Limits of the Global Village”, Intellect, Vol. 102, November 1974

The expressions “this shrinking world” or “the global village” have become so commonplace today that there is hardly a general textbook, a political speech, a television talk show, or a local chamber of commerce meeting without them. If Marshall McLuhan invented the phrase in the 1960's, its usage today is not limited to his writings and commentaries-it is part of our cultural vocabulary.

Yet, the phrase “shrinking world” has become a deceptive one. The world has shrunk and the global village may be there only in time scale, and nothing more; the world is shrinking only in the sense that we can travel faster, or that we can report the events and news of the world within minutes or even seconds.

However, in the sense of personal experience, the world has vastly expanded. The mere existence of fast communication services can not guarantee greater world communication and

experiences. That would be putting the cart before the horse. We gain experiences through communication, but, if media technology is all we are talking about, then understanding and learning are not automatically incurred.

Mowlana, Hamid. “The Communication Dimension of International Studies in the United States: A Quantitative Assessment”, International Journal of Communication Research (University of Cologne, Germany) Vol. I, No. I, Winter 1974

In the last decade, the comparative and integrated study of social institutions, political behavior, social change, public opinion and mass media has received unprecedented emphasis. Among the factors responsible for this trend have been:

· Post war interest in the developing nations with a concomitant concern for both understanding and promoting modernization.

· Broader acceptance of the idea that communication analysis provides a perspective through which one can better understand society.

· The expansion of education and business interests across national boundaries.

· The sharpening of our research and investigatory tools and improved means of collecting, storing, retrieving and sharing data.

Much of the new research has been interdisciplinary. International communication is largely defined today as a specialized area of inquiry upon which a number of behavioral science disciplines converge. All the social sciences can make some contribution to our understanding of the nature and effects of communication and no one discipline is in itself adequate for this task. Ultimately, international communication could comprehend the entire scope of the behavioral sciences. Conversely, a number of cybernetic, general systems, decision-making and other communications derivative models and theories have been adopted by the human sciences.

Mowlana, Hamid, “The limits of the Global Village”, Intellect, Volume 103, No. 2360, November 1974

Mowlana, Hamid. “Trends in Research on International Communication in the United States”, Gazette: International Journal for Mass Communication Studies (University of Amsterdam) XIX:2, 1973

Mowlana, Hamid. (with Theodore A. Couloumbis and Abdul A. Said) “Higher Education in America: The era of Plasticism”, The Diplomatic Pouch, School of International Service, American University, Washington D. C., October 1972

Mowlana, Hamid. “Libel Laws of Modern Japan and South Korea Are Compared”, (with Chul-Soo Chin) Journalism Quarterly, 48:2, Summer 1971

Both modern Japan and modern South Korea have laws that are products of the interaction of two cultural and legal traditions, one traditionally national and eastern, the other western. Their legal systems of rules and institutions are generally patterned after those of Western Europe, but since the end of World War II the influence of United States law has been growing as a result of their frequent contacts with U. S. legal thinking and education.

The two Asian countries, however, differ in the degree and manner of adoption and acceptance of things western, as they differ in the degree of industrialization, urbanization and political and social development. The purpose of this paper is to survey and compare the libel laws and their administration in the two countries in the post-war era.

Mowlana, Hamid. “Factors in Military Decision—Making: A Cross-Cultural Analysis”, (with Russell A. Turner), Air University Review: United States Air Force Professional Journal, XXII:3, March-April 1971

Mowlana, Hamid. “Toward a Theory of Communication Systems: A Developmental Approach”, Gazette: International Journal for Mass Communication Studies (University of Amsterdam) XVII: 1/2, 1971

The world's desperate communications needs, first for literacy and education but also for meaningful information, are deeply dependent on and influenced by the communication structure and system that operate in the United States. American power, expressed industrially, militarily and culturally, has become the most potent force on earth. Its impact transcends all national boundaries. Directly by economic control, indirectly by trade and a foreign emulation effect, communications have become a decisive element in the extension of United States world power. For over a generation, the prescriptive and normative (as against descriptive and empirical) theories of the press and communication systems formulated by Fred S. Siebert, Wilbur Schramm, and Theodore Peterson” have been the backbone and the level of analysis of the world's communication systems by the students of mass media in the United States.

Mowlana, Hamid. “Some Variables Interacting with Media Exposure Among Foreign Students”, (with Gerald W. McLaughlin) Sociology and Social Research, 53:4, Summer 1969

The use of information sources among foreign students interacts with various classification variables and indicates increases in heterogeneity. Two different ranking patterns of information sources were found among foreign students. These groups reverse their major emphasis on information sources from oral media to printed media.

Despite the increasingly significant role of the international students in the relations among groups and nations-and the consequent effects of such relationships upon individuals and institutions-little attention has been devoted to the study of media exposure among foreign students. In searching the journalism and sociological literature on international students published during the past decade an intriguing imbalance comes to light.

Mowlana, Hamid. “Obscenity and Pornography: A Study in Transition: Part I-Trend Toward Frankness”, The Knoxvillian, (Knoxville, Tennessee), Volume 1, No.2, May 1968

Mowlana, Hamid. “The Medium & The Message”, Phoenix, (University of Tennessee), Volume 9, No. 4, May, 1968

Mowlana, Hamid. “Obscenity and Pornography: A Study in Transition, Part II A Case Study in Knoxville”, The Knoxvillian, Volume 1, No. 3, June 1968

Mowlana, Hamid. “The Impact of Mass Media on Violence: Bad News at the Breakfast Table”, The Knoxvillian, Vol. 1, No. 4, July 1968

Mowlana, Hamid. “What are Universities for?”, The Knoxvillian, Vol. 1, No. 1, April 1968.

Since the autumn of 195'7,much has been said and written about the need to revise and strengthen the American educational system. For the past few years, free speech, campus sit-ins, peace and war have been our favorite topics. And though some of us may still think that only Avis is second best, at least according to one sociologist “drugs have out glamorized and out challenged sex on today's campus” -relegating it to second place.

Since the function of basic education in a free society is not to teach skills of one sort or another but to produce the kind of men and women who will use whatever skills they may acquire for humane purposes, we may wonder today whether or not our super-specialized curricula include training which alert students to the social, economic and political problems of our times.

Mowlana, Hamid. “Capital Formation in the Middle East: A Study of Human Factors in Economic Development”, Tennessee Survey of Business (University of Tennessee), Vol. III, No. 1, September 1967

In a static underdeveloped economy the rate of economic development, to a large extent, is a function of three closely related variables: (a) the rate at which economically productive capital is formed; (b) the continuous improvement in the quality of capital formed (that is, technological innovation); and (c) the effectiveness with which accumulated capital resources are utilized. This article is concerned primarily with the implications of numerous disabilities, values and attitudes on the prospects for capital formation, technological innovation and effective use of accumulated capital resources in the Middle East. The intention in this article is not to minimize the significance of the more obvious and generally recognized economic and political obstacles and the inadequacy of many governmental, legal and other institutions (the consequences of these factors are real enough) but rather to suggest that the way people in the Middle East think and behave also has an important bearing on the prospects for economic growth and to explore the way these latter factors operate.

Mowlana, Hamid. “Cross-National Comparison of Economic Journalism: A Study of Mass Media and Economic Development”, Gazette: International Journal of Mass Communication Research (University of Amsterdam), Vol. XIII, No. 4, 1967

As the developing countries move from a traditional economy toward a modern industrial economy, we see spectacular development in their communication systems, These developments in communications, especially in the mass media, arc the results of economic, social, and political evolution which is part of the national growth of the countries, One such development is the growth of economic journalism which gives birth to publications in such fields as commerce, finance, industry, and business, Mass media spread in a direct and monotonic relationship with a rising level of industrial capacity 1. As economic activity spreads throughout the country, the act of sharing and disseminating information becomes a necessity, Changing desires of the public create new industries, and this produces economic change, The new means of industrial production act as stimuli for altering and, indeed, remodeling the economic system.

Mowlana, Hamid and Ginger Smith, “Tourism, Telecommunications and Transnational Banking- a Framework for Policy Analysis”, Tourism Management, Volume 2, No. 4, December 1966

Mowlana, Hamid. “Chicago: How PR Men and Reporters See City Hall”, Add I: Reports in Professional Journalism, Medill School of Journalism, Northwestern University, Vol. I, No. 4, 1962

Municipal public relations is a phrase which was not heard in local government circles 20 years ago-and it was but timidly mentioned even 10 years ago.' But since then in the United States, “municipal public relations” has been talked about, listened to, experimented with, and written of by municipal officials, professional administrators, and a host of people interested in or connected with town and city government.

The purpose of municipal public relations is avowedly to assist in providing:

1. Adequate understanding by citizens of how city government functions;

2. Current information about city government operations;

3. Channels through which the citizens can affect city government policy and action;

4. Channels through which the citizens can be reached by city officials.